1. Behaviourist theories
   1. Two key ideas are needed to understand behaviourist approaches:
      1. Learning can only be studied as a change in observable behaviour.
         1. The object of study within a natural science ought to be observable and measurable.
         2. Learning can be measured as a change in the form or frequency of observable behaviour.
         3. No attention is given to thoughts or emotions as these cannot be scientifically observed.
      2. Environment determines behaviour.
         1. Behaviourist theories of learning assume that behaviour is determined by the environment in a similar cause-and-effect fashion.
         2. Behaviourists aimed to investigate ways in which the environment could be manipulated (for example, arranging a classroom in a particular way) in order to trigger a particular behaviour (such as promoting more collaborative behaviour).
   2. (CIPD, 2015c).
      1. These theories still inform many of the workplace approaches to learning and development, and constructivist approaches are particularly popular
   3. What is reality (ontology) and how knowledge is developed (epistemology)?
      1. Ontology:
         1. Behaviourists hold an objective view of the world, which is that the world exists independently of the learner and there is an objective reality to be learned. The role of the educator, then, is to assist the learner to learn about the world ‘out there’. This is also known as objectivism.
      2. Epistemology:
         1. Behaviourist theory is rooted in the philosophical perspective that knowledge is acquired through the senses and through experience.
2. Cognitive theories
   1. The three main cognitive theories are Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, and information-processing theory.
      1. Their main criticism of behaviourist theories was the denial of internal mental processes as factors in the learning experience.
      2. Instead, they argue that human memory is central to understanding how humans learn, and that having an understanding of how memory works helps trainers to be more effective in their learning interventions.
      3. (Stewart and Cureton, 2014).
         1. They used a computer metaphor to illustrate how the human mind operates like an active information processor (organising, classifying and storing information) and that prior knowledge plays a key role in anchoring this information
      4. In relation to their philosophical roots, cognitive approaches, like behaviourism, share an objective view of the world. That is, that the world exists independently of the learner and the role of the educator is to help the learner to learn about that world.
      5. In contrast to behaviourist theories, cognitive theories are linked to rationalist approaches. This means broadly that they put reason or logical thinking at the core of knowledge development.
      6. Subtopic 1
   2. Practical application
      1. Examine best ways to present information so that this can be easily assimilated
      2. Provide tools and strategies for easier memorisation of key principles
      3. Pitch the delivery at the level of understanding that the learners have (investigating their prior knowledge).
      4. Effort is spent on analysing how trainers can best enable learners to process and store new information effectively
3. Constructivist theories
   1. Constructivists emphasise the uniqueness of each learning experience as individuals develop meaning through their own interactions with the environment - mapping that world into someone’s mind.
   2. Cognitive constructionist Jean Piaget (1896–1980).
      1. This approach is built on the premise that there is a world ‘out there’ but that this can only be known through our own interpretation of it. There will be an accepted meaning of a concept but each person’s definition and understanding of it will be influenced by their own values, beliefs and life experiences.
      2. Pays attention to the mental processes but it is the role of active interaction with the environment that is key. Processes 1 & 2
      3. Process (1): Assimilation:
         1. New experiences are assimilated into existing and previous mental models.
      4. Process (2): Accommodation:
         1. Experiences are so novel and unique that existing mental models cannot explain them and a process of accommodation takes place whereby existing mental models are altered.
   3. Social constructivism Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)
      1. Adopts a more radical view of the construction of knowledge.
      2. Highlights the role of social interaction and culture in the development of cognitive functions.
      3. Practical application
         1. Shift from ‘training and development’, associated with traditional instructor-led activities, to ‘learning and development’, which emphasises the active role of the learner.
         2. Constructivism is one of the key learning theories that explains the effectiveness behind coaching and mentoring in the workplace.
   4. Subtopic 1
   5. Subtopic 1
4. Social cognitive theory Albert Bandura (1925–)
   1. Conceptualises learning as the outcome of social interactions which results in the development of shared understandings of social and individual behaviour (Bandura, 1977).
   2. 1. We learn by observing behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour – both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, we might see that a behaviour we are fearful of (e.g., getting into the deep end of the swimming pool) does not have negative outcomes for others (e.g. our friends) and decide to do it ourselves.
   3. 2. We store a mental model of experiences without necessarily having to execute the behaviour at that point. We can watch someone dance and store that information for when we next perform the dance ourselves.
   4. 3. We can self-regulate our behaviour. For instance, we can manage the stimulus and the consequences of our actions. You can give yourself a lovely treat after a difficult exam and this treat may help you stick to your study pattern!
   5. An important contribution of Bandura is that he found that self-regulation processes of planning, self-monitoring and persistence in goal attainment (Noe et al., 2013; Sitzmann and Ely, 2011) were strongly influenced by self-efficacy (i.e., an individual’s belief about his or her abilities to achieve a goal).
   6. In general, the higher the self-efficacy an individual has about a specific goal, the stronger the effort, persistence, motivation and resilience he or she will have towards achieving this goal. This is important for HRD practitioners because having an understanding of a learner’s self-efficacy in relation to the task will influence the success (or lack of it) of the learning intervention they design.
   7. Self-efficacy includes judgement about one's ability to accomplish a task as well as one's confidence in one's skills to perform the task. This definition is consistent with accepted definitions of self-efficacy as learner judgments about ability to successfully achieve educational goals (Elias & MacDonald, 2007.
   8. Practical application
      1. The idea that we learn by observing others (i.e., the ‘model of that behaviour’) is at the heart of on-the-job training approaches.
      2. For example, if you needed to train call centre staff on dealing with difficult complaints, you might ask trainees to spend some time observing how more experienced colleagues talk to customers and how customers react.
      3. You would then gradually ask trainees to start ‘imitating’ that behaviour and seek feedback from the model.
      4. Equally important for trainers are the ideas about the motivational power of each trainee’s self-efficacy.
      5. For instance, in a coaching intervention the coach might want to start by exploring the learner’s self-efficacy in relation to the specific goals to be achieved as this would be key to the success of the intervention.
      6. In fact, self-efficacy seems to be a by-product of effective coaching interventions (Baron and Morin, 2010).
5. Identifying learning theories
   1. 1. How does learning occur?
   2. 2. What is the role of the learner?
   3. 3. What is the role of memory?
   4. 4. What types of learning are best explained by the theory?
   5. 5. Which factors influence learning?
   6. 6. How does transfer occur?
   7. 7. Translating theories into practical design tips
   8. Table 2.1 summarises the classical viewpoints on learning theory. (Social cognitive theory is not covered because, as discussed, it combines elements of the three other theories.)
6. Video 2.3: The difference between classical and operant conditioning
   1. Classic conditioning
      1. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
         1. Hard-wired reflexes are made up of unconditioned stimuli (for example, food) and unconditioned responses (e.g. salivation).
         2. By presenting any stimulus (neutral stimulus, such as a bell in Pavlov’s experiment) together with an unconditioned stimulus (for example, food) enough times the subject learns the association between them.
         3. Subsequently, the neutral stimulus (bell) triggers the unconditioned response (i.e. salivation). This is now a learned behaviour: the bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and salivation its conditioned response.
   2. Operant conditioning
      1. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)
         1. Responses (or behaviours) that are reinforced positively (that is, followed by positive consequences) or negatively (that is, by removing a negative consequence) are more likely to occur again.
         2. Variable reinforcement (i.e. where reinforcement is given after a behaviour is performed an unpredictable number of times) can make a behavioural change more lasting and produce more powerful learning than if the behaviour is reinforced every time.
      2. B.F. Skinner (1904–1990).
      3. Practical application
         1. In contemporary HRD practice, principles of operant conditioning may still be relevant when the learning need is associated with particular observable behaviours
         2. The prompts for a particular behaviour (called stimulus). For instance, if you are training call centre staff to answer customer calls following a particular script, the stimulus would be the client’s phone call.
         3. The actual elements of the behaviour to be trained. In the previous example this might be the smile, the tone of voice, and the script to be enacted.
         4. The type of reinforcement and the circumstances under which reinforcement is given. Normally continuous reinforcement is given in the early stages of the process, and then this switches to variable reinforcement as the learning progresses and the behaviour is consolidated. For example, the trainer observing customers’ calls may at first praise the trainee every time he or she says the right words when dealing with a complaint, and as the learning progresses the trainer may praise him or her less frequently and at random times
7. Social cognitive theory