1. Microorganisms & Food
   1. Yoghurt Production
      1. 1. Equipment is sterilised - this kills off unwanted bacteria
      2. 2. Milk is pasteurised (heated to 75 degrees, 15 seconds) to also kill of unwanted bacteria
      3. 3. Starter culture is added
      4. 4.Mixture fermented at 40 degrees
      5. 5. Bacteria ferment the lactose sugar in the milk to form lactic acid, causing milk to clot
      6. 6. Eventually solidifies into yoghurt
   2. Soy Sauce Production
      1. 1. Cooked Soy Beans & roasted wheat mixed together
      2. 2. Fermentation by Aspergillus Fungus
      3. 3. Fermentation by yeasts
      4. 4. Fermentation by Lactobacillus bacterium
      5. 5. Filtered to remove bits
      6. 6. Pasteurised to kill off the microorganisms
   3. Functional Foods
      1. Plant Stanol Esters
         1. Lowers blood cholesterol
         2. Added to spreads
         3. Naturally occuring in plants - commercial use uses bacteria to convert sterols into stanols
      2. Prebiotics
         1. Carbohydrates
         2. Oligosaccharides
         3. A food supply for 'good' bacteria
         4. Special enzyme needed to digest (bad bacteria and humans don't have)
   4. Microbial Products
      1. Enzymes
         1. e.g. invertase
         2. Used in sweet manufacture
         3. Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose - tastes sweeter
         4. Less sugar needed
            1. Saves money
            2. Healthier
         5. Produced naturally by yeast "Saccharomyces Cerevisiae"
      2. Chymosin
         1. Cheese made using rennet
         2. Stomach lining of calf
         3. Contains Chymosin enzyme that clots milk
         4. Vegetarian version made from genetically modified microorganisms
         5. Genes taken from calf and put into yeast
      3. Vitamin C
         1. Dietary supplement
         2. Preservative
         3. Acetobacter makes chemical converted into vitamin C
      4. Citric Acid
         1. Flavouring & preservative
         2. Aspergillus Niger creates it comercially
      5. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)
         1. Flavour enhancer
         2. Made from Glutamic acid
      6. Carrageenan
         1. Gelling agent
         2. Extracted from seaweed
         3. Emulsifier in ice cream, jellies etc
2. Diet & Obesity
   1. Balanced Diet
      1. Carbohydrates
         1. energy
      2. Fats
         1. energy
         2. energy store
         3. insulation
         4. form cell membranes & steroid hormones
      3. Proteins
         1. growth & repair of tissue
         2. emergency energy
      4. Vitamins
         1. various functions
      5. Minerals
         1. various functions
      6. Water
      7. Fibre
         1. keeps gut working
         2. prevents constipation
   2. Deficiencies
      1. Protein deficiency
      2. Vitamin deficiencies
         1. scurvy
         2. lack of Vitamin C
      3. Mineral deficiencies
         1. anaemia
         2. lack of iron
         3. blood can't carry enough oxygen
   3. Health Problems
      1. Obesity
         1. 20% (or more) over recommended weight
         2. caused by sugary & fatty foods
         3. increases risk of diseases
            1. heart disease
            2. diabetes
            3. high blood preassure
            4. some forms of cancer
      2. Anorexia
         1. caused by eating too little
         2. infections
         3. weak bones
3. Genetically Modifying Plants
   1. Advantages
      1. Herbicide resistant plants
      2. Insect or disease resistant plants
      3. Incraese nutrional value in foods
      4. Able to grow food in hostile environments
      5. Foods with vaccines
   2. Disadvantages
      1. Gene leakage
         1. transplanted genes get out to the natural environment
         2. create "super-weeds"
      2. Reduce biodiversity
      3. Allergies
      4. How safe are they?
   3. Method
      1. Argobacterium tumefaciens
      2. see full diagram p. 78
   4. Arguments For
      1. Lack of food
         1. Many countries don't have enough food
         2. War
         3. Draught (draught-resistance!)
         4. Poor soil (hostile environments!)
         5. Pests (Pest reistance!)
         6. Single crop dependance
      2. Combat deficiencies
         1. e.g. Golden rice produced Vitamin A
   5. Arguments Against
      1. Tackle poverty first
         1. (It's not lack of food, it's lack of money to buy it)
      2. Countries dependant on GM seeds
         1. Companies can exploit them
      3. Poor soil
         1. Even GM soil can't survive
4. New Treatments
   1. Plant Drugs
      1. Aspirin
         1. Treats pain
         2. Lowers fever
         3. Active ingredient developed from salicin
         4. Occurs naturally in the leaves & bark of a willow tree
      2. Taxol
         1. Anti-cancer drug
         2. Pacific yew tree
         3. Very slow growing tree
      3. Quinine
         1. Chinchona tree
         2. Malaria treatment
      4. Artemisinin
         1. Artemisia annua plant
         2. Malaria treatment
         3. Helps prevent transmission
   2. New Drug Development
      1. Very expensive to produce
      2. Patented drugs - allows company to recoup costs
      3. Hence can charge what they like
         1. This is unethical
         2. But otherwise there'd be no reason to develop new drugs
   3. Using Genetics
      1. Genome
         1. The complete genetic make up of an organism
         2. Human Genome Project - discovered ALL human genes
         3. 25,000 genes
         4. Still don't know what they all do
         5. Genomics - study of genomes
      2. Better prediction
         1. Able to determine which genes make someone more likely to get a disease
         2. Earlier diagnosis
         3. Prevention
      3. How a disease is caused
         1. Develop drugs
         2. Gene therapy
      4. Tailored drugs
         1. Reduce side effects
         2. More effective
         3. Lower dose
      5. Pathogens
         1. Chemical pathways
         2. Stop pathogens
   4. GM Organisms & Medicine
      1. Insulin
         1. Made by GM bacteria
         2. Cheaper
         3. Easier
         4. Larger yield
      2. Human form
         1. Less side effects
         2. Less immune effects
         3. Generally work better than animal alternatives
         4. Suitable for vegetarians
      3. SEE Diagrams - How GM bacteria is made
5. Reproductive Technology
   1. IVF Treatment
      1. Why do it
         1. Can't conceive naturally
         2. Can't produce eggs (female)
         3. Miscarriage (female)
         4. Can't produce quality sperm (male)
      2. What is it
         1. Eggs are fertilised outside the body
         2. Parts can come from someone else
            1. Eggs
            2. Sperm
            3. Healthy uterus
      3. Different ways
         1. Donated eggs
            1. Though WON'T be genetic to parent
         2. Donated sperm
            1. Though WON'T be genetic to parent
         3. Surrogacy
            1. WILL be genetic to parent
            2. Egg is donated by mother
            3. Sperm fertilises egg outside
            4. Egg is inserted into a different woman
   2. Arguments Against
      1. Unnatural
         1. If you can't give birth, you shouldn't
         2. Children are a gift from God
      2. Not all eggs used
         1. More eggs are fertilised than needed
         2. Hence throwing away eggs is denying life
         3. Sometimes used for research
      3. Increased chance of multiple pregnancies
         1. Poor for health
         2. Financial burden
      4. Rogue Surrogate
         1. Surrogate mother may refuse to give up the child
   3. Embryo Screening
      1. How it's done
         1. Remove a cell from embryo
         2. Analyse its genes
      2. Designer babies
         1. Genetic disorders (legal)
         2. Tissue match (transplant for already sick child)
         3. Gender ( mostly illegal)
            1. Legal for specific diseases that are gender based
            2. Could cause female/male imbalance
6. Stem Cells
   1. Embryonic Stem Cells
      1. Can turn into any type of cell at all
      2. Are unspecialised / undifferentiated
      3. Come from early human embryos
   2. Normal Stem Cells
      1. Can only turn into certain types of cell
      2. Found in bone marrow
   3. Differentiation
      1. The process of cell specialisation
      2. Differentiation ability is lost quickly in Animal
      3. Plants never loose this ability
   4. Cure Health Problems
      1. Sickle Cell Anaemia
         1. Blood disease
         2. Treated with stem cells
         3. From bone marrow
      2. Replace faulty cells
         1. heart muscle cells
         2. insulin-producing cells
         3. nerve cells (for Parkinson's disease)
      3. Parkinson's Disease
         1. Loss of a brain neurone
         2. Movement is difficult
         3. Treamours
         4. Stiffness
         5. Trouble walking
   5. Reasons Against
      1. Human embryo's shouldn't be used
      2. More time should be spent on finding other ways to produce stem cells
      3. Each human embryo is a potential life
         1. But only potential life
         2. living people have more rights
         3. Usually unwanted embryos from fertility clinics
      4. Banned in some countries
         1. Allowed in UK under strict guidelines