chemistry

test ur self
1. The Periodic Table
  1. How is it organized?
    1. Groups
      1. What unites the groups?
      2. Metals
      3. What are the Metals?
      4. How are all Metals related?
      5. What are the groups?
      6. For Each Group
      7. Give the Name
      8. Give the Properties
      9. Explain what unites each group?
      10. Non Metals
      11. What are the Non-Metals?
      12. What separates the Non-Metals from the Metals?
      13. What are the groups?
      14. For Each Group
      15. Give the Name
      16. Give the Properties
      17. Explain what unites each group?
      18. Electron Orbital Shells
      19. What is common about the electron obits in each group?
    2. Periods
  2. Periods
    1. SPDF
      1. Electron Orbitals
      2. S
      3. P
      4. D
      5. F
      6. Why are the orbitals named SPDF?
      7. How many electrons are found in each orbital?
      8. N+1 Rule or the Madelung Rule
      9. Madelung Rule
      10. Summary: Electrons fill the lowest energy orbits first.
      11. Lewis Dot Diagram
    2. Lewis Diagrams
      1. Valance
unit 1 Matter
1. Definition: Anything that has mass and takes up space
2. properties of matter
  1. Physical & Chemical properties
  2. strength
    1. withstanding ability against force before it changes shape
  3. Thermal Conductivity:
    1. How well a material conducts heat. Metals are good... Non metals are thermal insulators
  4. Electrical Conductivity
    1. How well a material conducts electricity, (conductor) Metals=good, non metals=insulators
  5. Brittle, malleable, ductile
    1. Brittle
      1. how easily break
      2. eg: clay pot
    2. Malleable, ductile
      1. how easily can be molded, hammered
      2. aluminum & gold are malleable
  6. Magnetic Properties
    1. How well a material attracts magnetic metals. Magnetic metals have a magnetic field and attract metals like iron
  7. Density
    1. How closely packed the particles are in materials. Mass per unit volume. Metals are higher
  8. Melting and Boiling points
    1. The temp at which a material changes phase. (boiling, melting, condensing, freezing, sublimation)
3. Terms:
  1. Element: simplest type of pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components
  2. Molecule: Electrically neutral group of at least 2 atoms
  3. Compounds: Pure substance that is made up of 2 or more elements, with fixed portions
4. Pure substance
  1. compounds
    1. joined together
      1. chemical reaction
    2. separated
      1. chemical reaction
    3. properties
      1. different to components
  2. Elements
    1. what?
      1. simplest substance
      2. can not be broken down further
      3. ATOM
      4. proton number same
      5. chemical behavior same
    2. Metals
      1. left and middle
      2. properties
      3. good conductor of electricity
      4. high melting point
      5. !mercury low melting point!
      6. good cvonductor of heat
      7. shiny
      8. malleable
      9. hammered into shape
      10. ductile
      11. drawn into wire
      12. sonorous
      13. ring when struck
      14. !alkali metals with low melting point not sonorous!
      15. metalic character
      16. increases down groups
      17. outer atom further form nucleus
      18. removed more easily
      19. react to form ions
    3. Non-metals
      1. right
      2. properties
      3. poor conductor of electricity
      4. !carbon-graphite good conductor!
      5. low melting point
      6. !high melting point!
      7. carbon
      8. silicon
      9. poor conductor of heat
      10. brittle
    4. Metalloid
      1. metal properties
      2. non-metal properties
      3. antimony
      4. germanium
      5. polonium
      6. 7
      7. Arsenic As
      8. Tellurium Te
      9. Germanium Ge
      10. Silicon Si
      11. Antimony Sb
      12. Boron B
      13. Polonium
  3. molecule
    1. atleast 2 non metals with covalent bond
  4. Pure Substance
    1. Definition: One kind of atom or molecule
    2. 2 Types:
      1. Compounds: H2O, NaCl, CO
      2. Elements: He, H, N, Fe
5. Mixture
  1. no chemical reaction
  2. separated easily
    1. physical methods
    2. keep properties
    3. dif methods
      1. Magnetic attraction
      2. It uses the principle of magnetism to separate a mixture of magnetic and non-magnetic substances
      3. When a magnet goes near to a magnetic and non-magnetic mixture, the magnetic substances will enter the magnetic field of the magnet and will be filtered out of the mixture onto the magnet.
      4. Examples
      5. Sulphur and iron fillings
      6. Copper and iron nails
      7. Aluminium and iron staples
      8. Filtration
      9. Can be used to separate liquid from solid, or a non-soluble solid from a soluble solid
      10. When the solid and liquid mixture is poured through the filter paper, the bigger particles will be filtered out.
      11. When a soluble solid and a non-soluble solid is mixed with a liquid, it forms a mixture, with the non-soluble residue. By poring this through a filter paper, the non-soluble particles will be filtered out by the filer paper. The soluble particles can then be filter out using evaporation.
      12. Examples
      13. Chalk and water
      14. Salt and sand
      15. Air and air particles
      16. Evaporation
      17. Used to separate dissolved solids from a solution by having the gradual change of state from liquid to gas that occurs at the liquid's surface
      18. When the solution containing the dissolved solid is heated, the water escapes into the air as gas, leaving behind the solid.
      19. Examples
      20. Salt and water
      21. iron fillings and ethanol
      22. sugar and water
      23. Fractional distillation
      24. Used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points
      25. Separate the constituents of air
      26. Works like normal distillation, except with the insertion of glass beads to separate the different types of substances.
      27. Examples
      28. Obtain liquid nitrogen, liquid oxygen and high-purity argon
      29. Obtain petroleum fractions from crude oil
      30. Make alcoholic beverages
      31. Chromatography
      32. (Paper Chromatography) Used to separate the components of a mixture by treating the mixture of a solvent
      33. RNA fingerprinting in forensics
      34. Detecting traces of unpermitted addictives in foodstuffs
      35. Identifying poison or drugs
      36. After putting the substance on a piece of paper, pour the solvent on it to isolate the different colurs of the substance.
  3. types
    1. heterogeneous
      1. is not even throughout. Thus, differences in the mixture are visible. An example of a heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of water and sand.
    2. homogeneous
      1. is even throughout. An example of a homogenous mixture is a solution of water that has sugar stirred in.
  4. Impure Substances (mixtures)
    1. Definition: Combination of 2 or more pure substances, do not react. Keeps properties.
    2. 2 Types:
      1. Homogeneous:
      2. Uniform, not easily separated, cannot see different particles... Sugar and water. (called solution, made of solute and solvent(larger))
      3. Heterogeneous:
      4. Not uniform, Milk, sugar and salt, oil and water, air, blood
      5. Suspension: Solid cement in water. Ex: Cement slurry
      6. Emulsion: Oil in vinegar. Ex: Salad dressing
      7. Gel: Liquid trapped in solid. Ex: Fruit jelly
      8. Fog: Liquid in gas. Ex: Spray paint
      9. Smoke: Solid in gas. Ex: Smoke
      10. Foam: Gas trapped in Liquid. Ex: Shaving cream
unit 2
1. states & Kinetic molecular theory
  1. Kinetic Molecular Theory:
    1. All matter are composed of small particles
    2. The particles of matter are in constant motion
    3. All collisions between the particles of matter are perfectly elastic
    4. Linear motion, atoms and molecules move in a straight line between collisions
2. The states of matter:
  1. States
    1. Solids
      1. solid
      2. particles fixed positions
      3. definite shape
      4. vibration about fixed position
      5. Solid: Packed closely together, fixed volume and density and incompressible
      6. fixed volume
      7. fixed shape
      8. particles
      9. packed close together
      10. vibrating slightly
      11. orderly arrangement
      12. forces between particles
      13. rising termperature
      14. particles vibrate more
      15. MELTING POINT
      16. strong bonds broken
      17. solid to liquid
    2. Liquids
      1. liquid
      2. particles
      3. held tightly
      4. move around
      5. no defined shape
      6. vibrating about fixed position
      7. Liquid: No shape, Incompressible, fixed shape, packed less closely than solid
      8. fixed volume
      9. no defined shape
      10. "take up the shape of the container in which they are held"
      11. particles
      12. bonds (when solid) broken
      13. rising temperature
      14. EVAPORATION
      15. particles gain energy to escape as gas
      16. BOILING
      17. particle bonds broken
      18. particles escape as gass
      19. liquid to gas
    3. Gases
      1. gas
      2. particles
      3. further apart
      4. energy = move apart
      5. expand to fill a container
      6. compress
      7. forms liquid
      8. Gas: Packed loosely, Randomly dispersed, Volume and shape of container, compressible
      9. no fixed volume
      10. no fixed shape
      11. fill container or space they are in
      12. completely random motion
    4. Plasma
      1. Uses
      2. television
      3. signs
      4. flourescent tubes
      5. nature
      6. stars
      7. lightning
      8. most common in universe
  2. change of state
    1. physical conditions
    2. water
      1. all three states possible
    3. heating
      1. particles vibrate faster
    4. diagram
    5. solid -> liquid -> gas
      1. heat energy added
      2. particles overcome holding forces
      3. ENDOTHERMIC
      4. energy absorbed
    6. gas-> liquid -> solid
      1. cooling
      2. removing energy
      3. particles closer together
      4. EXOTHERMIC
      5. energy given out
  3. heating curves
    1. change of state
      1. temperature stays same
      2. energy heating = separate particle
      3. cooling = particles closer together
      4. liquid to gas
      5. HEAT OF VAPORISATION
      6. compare energy separation of different particles
      7. The energy required to change a gram of a liquid into the gaseous state at the boiling point
      8. break intermolecular attractive forces
      9. energy to expand gas PxV=work
      10. kinetic energy
      11. solid to liquid
      12. HEAT OF FUSION
      13. The energy required to change a gram of a substance from the solid to the liquid state without changing its temperature.
      14. breaks solid bonds
      15. leaves energy in intermolecular forces
      16. i.e. liquid state
  4. Attractive Force of Solid > AF of Liquid > AF of Gas
  5. int_RA_molecular Forces
    1. An intramolecular force is any force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound.[1] They contain all types of chemical bond. They are stronger than intermolecular forces, which are present between atoms or molecules that are not actually bonded.
      1. Hydrophobic Interactions
      2. Ionic Bonds
      3. metal + nonmetal
      4. Covalent Bond
      5. nonmetal + nonmetal
      6. Metalic
      7. delocalised electrons
    2. forces within molecules
    3. one molecule
      1. covalent bonds between O & H in water?
    4. strong forces
  6. int_ER_molecular Forces
    1. Intermolecular forces are forces of attraction or repulsion which act between neighboring particles (atoms, molecules or ions). They are weak compared to the intramolecular forces, the forces which keep a molecule together.
      1. e.g covalent bonds of HCl are stronger than bonds between the molecules
    2. forces between molecules
    3. relatively weak
    4. 2 or more molecules
      1. Hydrogen Bond
      2. is this intERmolecular as the bond polarity causing hydrogen bond is between molecules.
unit 3 atom & atomic theories
1. atomic model
  1. people & theories
    1. Dalton's Atomic Theory
      1. 1) (WRONG) All matter is made up of hard, indivisible particles called atoms
      2. 2) (CORRECT) The atoms of the same element are identicle; atoms of different elements are different
      3. 3) (CORRECT) Compounds are formed when atoms are combined in a specific ratio
      4. 4) (CORRECT) A chemical reaction involves the arrangement of atoms. It changes the way they are joined together.
      5. 5) (INCORRECT) Atoms cannot be created or destroyed and cannot during a chemical reaction, change from one element to another
    2. Thompson Atomic Theory
      1. 1) Electrical charge is composed of small negatively charged particles
      2. 2) The electrons of a substance all have same mass and same charge
      3. 3) An atom looked like a raisin cake negatively charge electron surrounding a positive charged mass
    3. Rutherfords Atom Model
      1. 1) The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small volume, the nucleus
      2. 2) The nucleus is surrounded by an "empty" space consisting of negatively charged electrons of very small mass
      3. 3) The mass of the atom is mainly located in the core. He also predicted that the nucleus is composed of positive charged particles called protons.
      4. gold foil experiment
      5. Summary
      6. positive alpha particles
      7. sent through gold foil
      8. malleable
      9. thin sheets
      10. easy to pass through
      11. particles should be reflected as of like charges repel
      12. thomsom model=scattered electrons
      13. mainly positive
      14. most particles went straight through
      15. few were reflected
      16. indication of tiny, positive nucleus
      17. which makes mass of atom
      18. rest is mostly empty space
    4. Bohr's Atomic Model
      1. Explained the existence of line spectra but also presented an explanation for the fact that atoms with moving electrons do not collapse.
      2. Predicted that the total energy, kinetic and potential os quantized.
      3. Proposed an atomic model that is similar to the solar system. Electrons move around the nucleus just like the planets orbit around the sun
      4. 1) Electron moves around the nucleus of the atom, in energy levels
      5. 2) Electrons with same energy move in the same energy level.
      6. 3) The energy level further from nucleus has higher energy than energy levels closer to the nucleus
      7. 4) Energy levels closer to the nucleus are filled with first electrons
      8. 5) Each energy level is indicated by letters: K;L;M;N;O;P;Q
      9. 6) Each energy level can only take so many electrons. (2n(power 2))
      10. 7) Electrons in orbits close to the level nucleus are in the lower energy level than orbits away from the nucleus
      11. 8) If electrons are in the lowest available energy level and then the atom is in a state of the lowest possible energy or in the ground state
      12. 9) When electrons absorb energy they move to a higher energy level and now the electrons are in the excited state
      13. 10) The excites state is unstable and electrons fall back to lower energy levels when they release energy
      14. solar system model
      15. electrons found in fixed levels
    5. Micheal Farody (1833)
      1. Showed that matter has an electrical nature that consists of fixed quantities of electricity
    6. De Brogile (1924)
      1. Postulated that small moving particles (electrons) also have a wave nature. It was later that confirmed by Dawisson and G.P Thompson
    7. Schrodinger (1925)
      1. Proposed a wave mechanical atomic model where the moving electrons forms special waves (3D waves) around the nucleus of the atom called an orbital
    8. Chadwick (1932)
      1. Discovered the neutron
  2. timeline
    1. 420 Bc
      1. democritus
      2. all mater made of indivisible particles
    2. 1803
      1. dalton
      2. matter consists of indivisible atoms
      3. atoms of same element are identical
    3. 1833
      1. Michael Faraday
      2. matter has an electric nature
      3. that consists of fixed quantities of electricity
    4. 1897
      1. thompson
      2. raisin cake
      3. discovered electron
      4. ration of charge & mass
    5. 1911
      1. rutherford
      2. positive nucleus
      3. electrons move space around
      4. 1st nucleus model
    6. 1913
      1. Bohr
      2. electrons have fixed energy in which they move
    7. 1924
      1. de brogile
      2. electrons have wave nature
    8. 1925
      1. schrodlinger
      2. moving electron with 3d waves
      3. called orbitals
    9. 1932
      1. chadwick
      2. neutron
2. structure of the atom
  1. Relative Atomic Mass
    1. Takes into account all the isotopes of an element and their percentage occurrence in nature
      1. Ex: Chlorine has 2 common isotopes
      2. Chlorine 37 (24.5%) and Chlorine 35 (75.5%)
      3. [(75.5 * 35) + (24.5 * 37)] / 100 = 35.5 amu
    2. Relative Atomic Mass
      1. The average mass of a mole of atoms of an element on a scale where the mass of a carbon atom is 12 units
      2. average mass
      3. 1 mole
      4. element
      5. carbon 12 atom = 12 units
      6. moles = mass/Ar
      7. example
      8. chlorine 2 isotopes : 75% Chlorine 35, 25% Chlorine 37. Ar= 35.5
  2. Allotropes
    1. Same elements that occur in different crystal form and have different chemical and physical properties. Ex: Diamond and Graphite
  3. Isotopes
    1. Same element with different neutron number
    2. protons
      1. same number
    3. neutrons
      1. different numbers
    4. chemical properties
      1. same
    5. physical properties
      1. slightly different
  4. Ions of Atom
    1. When atom gains electrons it contains more electrons than protons and thus gains negative charge.... Anion... Cation is positive
    2. anions
      1. release electrons
      2. oxidation
      3. ionic half equation
      4. 2Cl- (aq) ---> Cl2 (g) + 2e-
      5. form molecules
      6. Cl2
      7. Br2
      8. non-metal
    3. cations
      1. gain electrons
      2. reduction
      3. ionic half equation
      4. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ---> Cu (s)
      5. form metal atoms
      6. Al
      7. Cu
      8. metal
  5. atom
    1. sub-atomic particles
      1. NB relative scale.
      2. very little mass or charge
    2. M: Mass number
    3. P + N
    4. A: Atomic Number
    5. P
    6. E: Element
3. Electron Configuration
  1. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
  2. Valence electrons= Last sub energy level + Last Main energy level
  3. Shortened: [He]2p6 3s1....
  4. electron configuration
    1. definition
      1. way in which e- are arranged around atom
    2. electrons
      1. no mass
      2. mass= n0 and p+
      3. involved in changes during chemical reaction
      4. ions
      5. loss
      6. positive charge
      7. cation
      8. gain
      9. negative charge
      10. anion
    3. energy levels
      1. orbits or shells
      2. excited state
      3. position of e- when gain of energy
      4. unstable
      5. ground state
      6. most stable
      7. lowest
      8. sub energy levels
      9. s
      10. p
      11. d
      12. f
    4. aufabu principle
      1. arrows for electrons in opposite spin
      2. lowest energy level 1st (closest to nucleus)
      3. 7 main energy levels
      4. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7
      5. sub energy levels
      6. s
      7. max 2e-
      8. 1 orbital
      9. p
      10. max 6e-
      11. 3 orbital
      12. d
      13. max 10e-
      14. 5 orbital
      15. f
      16. max 14e-
      17. 7 orbital
    5. pauli's exclusion principle
      1. s
      2. every e level has a 's' sub e level
      3. max 2e-
      4. 1 orbital
      5. p
      6. max 6e-
      7. 3 orbital
      8. 'p' sub energy level starts in 2nd main e level
      9. d
      10. max 10e-
      11. 5 orbital
      12. 'd' sub energy level starts in 3rd main e level
      13. f
      14. max 14e-
      15. 7 orbital
      16. 'f' sub energy level starts in 4th main e level
    6. Hunds rule
      1. max no. of e- in a e level is
      2. 2n to the power 2
    7. orbital box diagram
      1. or aufabu diagram
      2. uses
      3. pauli's exclusion principle
      4. aufabu principle
      5. Hunds rule
      6. direction of arrows show e- in same orbital spin in opposite directions
    8. of ions
      1. s s ps ps dps dps fdps fdps
      2. coefficient
      3. s
      4. 1s,2s...
      5. p
      6. 2p,3p...
      7. d
      8. 3d,4d..
      9. f
      10. 4f,5f...
      11. power
      12. s
      13. power 2
      14. p
      15. power 6
      16. d
      17. power 10
      18. f
      19. power 14
    9. valence electrons
      1. outer most energy level
      2. highest electron no.
      3. eg:
      4. 2 plus 6 =8
  5. flame tests
    1. A flame test is an analytic procedure used in chemistry to detect the presence of certain elements, primarily metal ions, based on each element's characteristic emission spectrum
    2. lithium ion
      1. deep red
    3. sodium ion
      1. golden yellow
    4. rubidium ion
      1. bluish red
    5. caesium ion
      1. blue
    6. calcium ion
      1. brick red
    7. strontium ion
      1. blood red
    8. barium ion
      1. apple green
    9. Copper II ion
      1. Bluish green
    10. Magnesium ion
      1. white
      2. no color
    11. Potassium ion
      1. lilac
Unit 4 Periodic table
1. shells
  1. arrangement
    1. chemical properties
    2. physical properties
    3. PERIODICITY
      1. number of electrons in outer shell
      2. increase to right, between periods
2. history
  1. dimitri mendeleev
    1. arranged according to mass no.
    2. 1869
    3. gaps for future elements
  2. henry moseley
    1. arranged according to proton no. (atomic no.)
    2. similar properties in vertical groups
    3. 1913
    4. current day
3. Arrangement
  1. increasing atomic number
  2. electrons in outer energy levels
    1. similar chemical properties
    2. ion formed
      1. group1 : 1+
      2. group2 : 2+
      3. group3 : 3+
      4. group4 : x
      5. group5 : 3-
      6. group6 : 2-
      7. group7 : 1-
      8. group8 : x
  3. Periods
    1. Rows
    2. 1 to 7
  4. Groups
    1. columns
    2. 1 to 7
    3. group 8 = 0
  5. families
    1. group 1
      1. alkali metals
      2. more reactive down the group
    2. group 2
      1. alkaline earth metals
    3. group 7
      1. halogens
      2. more reactive moving up the table
4. general trends
5. electron configuration
  1. 1s2
    1. 1 is period
    2. s,p,d,f is block
    3. 2 is valence electrons
      1. identified from outer most & highest
      2. look at outer most energy level and consider same e level or higher ones in addition, thereafter add the powers to get ve
      3. ve is group no.