1. MISC.
   1. Ethics -> Agreed system of moral codes.
   2. Morality -> Individuals moral code.
   3. Three main types of ethics
      1. 1) Descriptive ethics -> Describes morality of people
         1. Not covered
      2. 2) Meta-ethics -> Studies of language; what people mean.
         1. Covered in year 13
      3. 3) Normative-ethics -> How people decide right from wrong.
         1. Covered in year 12
2. Ethical Theories
   1. Views of the good
      1. Objective -> The view that good and bad exists as a matter of fact. Regardless of peoples opinions.
      2. Subjective -> The view that good and bad is a matter of opinions. NO fact of the matter
   2. Relatism
      1. Relatism -> View that acts are right or wrong relative to the Situation or people involved and its consequences.
      2. Relativists ->Acts would vary depending on the situation.
      3. Cultural Relatism ->Each society develops its own right or wrong moral laws
      4. Subjective Relatism -> Each individual creates their own sense of right or wrong
   3. Absolutism
      1. Absolutists -> Acts are always right or wrong.
      2. Absolutism -> Acts are right or wrong in themselves.
   4. Deontological
      1. Deontological ethics
         1. Kant-> Categorical imperatives
         2. Aquinas-> Natural law
      2. Deontological -> Approach to ethics that suggests that an action is right if it conforms to a set of rules. -> Involving doing your DUTY -> Absolutist approach to ethics
   5. Teleological
      1. Teleological ethics
         1. Fletcher -> Situationism
         2. Bentham/Mill -> Utilitarian
      2. Teleological -> Consequentialist approach to ethics -> An action is right if given that the situation results in the best possible outcome. -> Relativist approach to ethics
   6. Situationism
      1. Relativist and Teleological approach to decision making
      2. The Middle Ground (3 approaches)
         1. Legalistic -> fixed moral rules and regulations ALWAYS be obeyed
         2. Antinomianism -> Abandonment of ALL rules purely spontaneous and casual.(REJECTED by fletcher)
         3. Situaltionism -> Principles and rules of society and culture but sets them aside in the name of 'love'
      3. Four presuppositions of situationsim
         1. Pragmatism -> Action must be practical and work in achieving the desired end (love).
         2. Relativism -> Acts would vary depending on the situation.
         3. Positivism -> Love is the most important criteria of all
         4. Personalism -> People, not rules, are put first
3. Utilitarianism
   1. Bentham
      1. Pleasure and pain
         1. Hedonistic view
         2. Maximise pleasure, Minimise pain.
      2. Priniciple of utility
         1. An act is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number
      3. Hedonic calculus
         1. Measures and weighs up Pleasure and Pain as a result of an action.
         2. No-one more important than anyone else
         3. Calculus made up of seven points
            1. Intensity of the pleasure (how strong the pleasure is)
            2. Duration of the pleasure (how long will the pleasure last)
            3. Certainty of the pleasure(how sure can you be the pleasure will arrive)
            4. Propinquity or Remoteness of the pleasure (how close is the pleasure)
            5. Fecundity of the pleasure (will more pleasure be followed)
            6. Purity of the pleasure (produce only pleasure)
            7. Extent of the pleasure ( number of people affected by the action)
      4. Act utilitarianism ->Principle of utilitarianism to be applied in each situation.
   2. Mill
      1. Higher and Lower pleasures
         1. qualitative approach
         2. Higher pleasures -> Mental/ Intellectual pleasures
            1. Religion
            2. Philosophy
            3. Reading poetry
            4. Appreicating art
            5. Listening to music
         3. Lower pleasures -> Physical/Bodily pleasures
            1. Eating
            2. Drinking
            3. Sleep
            4. Sex
      2. Rule utilitarianism
         1. Strong rule utilitarianism -> once a rule has been derived for the community they must never be broken
         2. Weak rule utilitarianism -> Generally accepted rules there may still be situations as to where the greatest good for the greatest number can still be reached
   3. Singer
      1. Preference utilitarianism
         1. NOT hedonistic
         2. Questions often asked when deciding what is the best out come for the situation
            1. what is my preference in the situation?
            2. What is in my own interest?
            3. What outcome would i prefer ?
         3. It has to still obey the greatest good for the greatest number
         4. Choose the action that gives the best possible outcome for those concerned. Not what produces the most pleasure.
         5. Our own preference cannot count for more than the preference of others
4. Medical Ethics 1
   1. Abortion and Rights to a child
      1. Sanctitcy of life
         1. ALL life is sacred
      2. Strong sanctity of life
         1. 'So God created humankind in his image'
         2. Blessed by God
         3. Given dominionship over world
      3. Weak sanctity of life
         1. Extraordinary means as a justification of killing
            1. Applies the Christian principle of love and compassion
      4. Justified Abortion
         1. Double Effect (Save mothers life but means Aborting the foetus)
      5. Following 'Defend the Innocent' Primary Precept
         1. You cannot Abort a child as it cannot defend for its self or use reason
      6. Quality of life
         1. Disability in the foetus
            1. They can be Aborted if screened and found to be disabled (physical or mental handicaps)
            2. Some people dislike this as the "disabled" child might live a full and loving life despite of the disability
            3. If every one did this there would be no "disabilities " in the human race
         2. Equality and Disability
            1. People who are disables should not be discriminated against in any way
            2. Allow disabled people to live a full life
      7. Pro-choice / Pro-life
         1. Pro-choice
            1. Mothers choice in abortion
            2. The people involved concern
         2. Pro-life
            1. Against Abortion
            2. wants child to be born
      8. Rights to a child
5. Genetic Engineering
   1. Crops
      1. A major benifit is the reduction in the use of fertilizers , herbicides and pesticides
      2. We can modify the DNA of plants
         1. To create a healthy yield and reduce pesticides
      3. Farmers buy into a circle of dependency
         1. The multinational companies are selling seeds and fertilizers to the farmers
         2. The farmers soil becomes conditioned to a certain pesticide , herbicide and fertilizers
      4. Hostility to the Genetic modification of crops, described as 'Frankenstein - Food'
   2. Animals
      1. We can grow 'ears' on rats
      2. Similar to GM crops (above)
   3. Humans
      1. Germ line
         1. Sperm or eggs, are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are integrated into their genomes
            1. Highly effective in counteracting genetic disorders and hereditary diseases
      2. Stomatic cells
         1. Modifications and effects will be restricted to the individual patient only, and will not be inherited by the patients offspring or later generations
      3. Stem Cells
         1. They can be specialised into any other cell
            1. Can be obtained from
            2. Umbilical cord (The blood)
            3. Adults(From tissues)
      4. Saviour Siblings
         1. They are younger siblings created to save / improve the standard of living for the elder sibling
            1. Laws stop people having Saviour Siblings
            2. Save the life of the parents
            3. Harvest organs
            4. Genetically identical to the elder sibling
            5. Tissue type match
         2. Uses a lot of embryos (IVF will be needed)
   4. Clones
      1. Reproductive Cloning
         1. The genetic duplication of an existing organism especially by transferring the nucleus of a somatic cell of the organism into an enucleated cell
      2. Therapeutic cloning
         1. Stem cells from (typically) skin cells, and use those cells to grow tissue that are a perfect genetic match for the patient
6. Abortion and Rights to a child
   1. Sanctitcy of life
      1. ALL life is sacred
   2. Strong sanctity of life
      1. 'So God created humankind in his image'
      2. Blessed by God
      3. Given dominionship over world
   3. Weak sanctity of life
      1. Extraordinary means as a justification of killing
         1. Applies the Christian principle of love and compassion
   4. Justified Abortion
      1. Double Effect (Save mothers life but means Aborting the foetus)
   5. Following 'Defend the Innocent' Primary Precept
      1. You cannot Abort a child as it cannot defend for its self or use reason
   6. Quality of life
      1. Disability in the foetus
         1. They can be Aborted if screened and found to be disabled (physical or mental handicaps)
         2. Some people dislike this as the "disabled" child might live a full and loving life despite of the disability
         3. If every one did this there would be no "disabilities " in the human race
      2. Equality and Disability
         1. People who are disables should not be discriminated against in any way
         2. Allow disabled people to live a full life
   7. Pro-choice / Pro-life
      1. Pro-choice
         1. Mothers choice in abortion
         2. The people involved concern
      2. Pro-life
         1. Against Abortion
         2. wants child to be born
   8. Rights to a child
      1. Natural Law
         1. Primary precept
            1. Reproduction
      2. Infertility
         1. Inability to have a child
         2. Ways to get around infertility
            1. IVF
            2. In-Vitro Fertilisation - outside the human body using sperms of the husband or donor and the egg of the wife or a donor egg.
            3. AID
            4. When donor sperm is used
            5. AIH
            6. Artificial Insemination by Husband , sperm injected into wives reproductive tract
7. Kantian Ethics
   1. W.D Ross
      1. Seven Prima Facie (at first sight) duties
         1. Fidelity
         2. Reparation for harm done
         3. Gratitude
         4. Justice
         5. Beneficence
         6. Self-improvement
         7. Not being Evil
         8. THEY STRESS THE CHARACTER of DUTY.
            1. Must be considered in any moral situation
   2. Contradictions in the Will
      1. universalise an act , does not contradict itself but results in an undesirable world to live in
   3. Hypothetical Imperatives
      1. NOT moral commands
      2. Give instructions on how to achieve something else
   4. Categorical Imperatives
      1. Absolute command that must always be followed
      2. Absolute moral obligations
      3. Every person is equally bound to follow the dictates of the Categorical Imperative
   5. Contradictions in the law of Nature
      1. Universalising an act that would become contradictory to its self
   6. Duty
      1. Good Wills only motive is Duty
      2. Some thing only contains good will if it is done out of your DUTY
      3. Its only motive is awareness that the act is right in itself
   7. Freedom
      1. For Kant, it is vital that we recognise that we do have true freedom or autonomy of the will. with this freedom comes the responsibility to make a decision which is not swayed by desires or emotions
   8. God
      1. Inherent justice in the world that ultimately virtuous or good behaviour would be rewarded (Summum Bonum ('highest good'))
   9. Immorality
      1. Not all good acts are rewarded in this life
   10. Reason
       1. Objective view of the good based on reason
       2. Moved away from Religion and Superstition , used Reason alone
       3. Pure and Practical reason could lead us to ethical decisions which are Universally Binding and NOT influenced by Fads or Fancies.
       4. Exists more or less in everyone
   11. Good Will
       1. If Moral law is to be Binding it must contain something which is good in itself, with out reference to anything else
       2. The only thing Intrinsically good (Good in itself) is Good Will
       3. The intention not the results of the act makes Good Will
8. Christian ethics
   1. Christian ethics can be found in
      1. The Bible
         1. Old testament
            1. Contains absolute laws with little room for felxibility , over 600 laws -> most famous 10 commandments
         2. New testament
            1. Love God and love neighbour is two of the most important commandments , Beatitudes and sermon on the mount are the most famous
         3. Ethics of Saint Paul
            1. Chrisitans should be guided by the Holy Spirit, (Summed up love thy neighbour)
      2. The Church
         1. The Catholic church has a magisterium -> its teachings have a God given authority. The Pope is guided by the Holy Spirit
      3. The Holy Spirit and Their Conscience
         1. Conscience supposedly is the voice of God . Inspiration from the inner dwellings of the Holy Spirit.
      4. Natural law
         1. The theory than an absolute , external moral law can be discovered by using reason
      5. Situation Ethics
         1. Law of LOVE. Fletcher -> we need to be prepared to abandon laws when love demands this
      6. Proportionalism
         1. Compromise between Situation Ethics and Natural Law. Accepts certain acts are wrong and evil but if there is a proportionate reason preform the act
      7. Virtue Ethics
         1. "sit" comfortably next to Natural Law. Common to see the CARDINAL VIRTUES as prudence
         2. THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
            1. Virtue
            2. Vice
            3. Humility
            4. Pride
            5. Liberality
            6. Averarice
            7. Brotherly Love
            8. Envy
            9. Meekness
            10. Wrath
            11. Chastity
            12. Lust
            13. Temperance
            14. Gluttony
            15. Diligence
            16. Sloth
            17. They are accompanied by the 7 CAPITAL VIRTUES (7 deadly sins) (left good virtues right bad virtues)
9. Divine Command Theory
   1. Ethics are objective because God is the supreme Moral Governor
   2. Euthyro's Dilema
      1. 'Are things GOOD because God commands it, or are they GOOD and thats why God commands it'
10. Natural Moral Law
    1. Everything has a purpose.
    2. Primary Precepts
       1. Worship God
       2. Ordered Society
       3. Reproduction
       4. Learning
       5. Defend the Innocent
    3. Secondary Precepts
       1. Absolute and Deontological principles
          1. Derived from primary precepts
          2. Found by use of REASON
       2. Must use Secondary Precepts to GET to Primary Precepts
       3. Worship God (Primary precept)
          1. Found by being Religious (Secondary precepts)
       4. Ordered Society (Primary precept)
          1. Found by Following laws (Secondary precepts)
       5. Reproduction (Primary precept)
          1. Found by having Sexual intercourse(Secondary precepts)
       6. Learning (Primary precept)
          1. Found by having an Education (Secondary precepts)
       7. Defend the Innocent (Primary precept)
          1. Found by NOT Aborting an unborn child(Secondary precepts)
    4. Efficient and Final cause
       1. Efficent cause
          1. What gets things done
       2. Final cause
          1. End product
    5. Real and Apparent Goods
       1. Real Good
          1. Preservation / Improvement of self
          2. Use reason to find this
       2. Apparent Good
          1. "Good" things (eg drugs) that make us fall short of our potential
    6. God
       1. Human life should be 'Vision of God which is promised in the next life'
          1. Humans were made and should be the centre of Natural law
    7. Casuistry and Double Effect
       1. Casuistry
          1. This is the name given to Natural Law when applied to specific situations
       2. Double Effect
          1. An 'un-wanted' side effect of Casuistry
    8. Proportionalism
       1. There are certain moral rules that should never be broken unless there is a proportionate reason to do so