1. Adaptations
   1. Body Plans
      1. Organ Systems
         1. Nervous
            1. fast acting nerve impulses
         2. Endocrine
            1. transmit slow acting chemical signals
         3. Muscular
            1. muscles
         4. Skeletal
            1. hydostatic (lack hard parts)
            2. fluid held under pressure
            3. cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes and annelids
            4. exoskeletons
            5. rigid external body covering
            6. molluscs (shell)
            7. arthropods (chitin)
            8. endoskeletons
            9. hard supporting elements (bones)
            10. sponges (spicules)
            11. echinoderms (ossicles)
            12. vertebrates (cartilage or bone)
            13. Mammalian
            14. Axial
            15. Appendicular
            16. Joints
            17. covered by cartilage or connective tissue
            18. allometry
            19. as body gets larger, weight increase faster than crossectional area
            20. larger animals have thicker bones relative to body size than smaller
            21. structure
            22. i-beam (larger animals)
            23. push-up (smaller)
         5. Integumentary
         6. Circulatory
            1. small/thin bodies
            2. cells exchange material directly with environment
            3. cnidarians, platyhelminthes
            4. internal circulatory systems
            5. pump, tubes, body tissue, gas exchange
            6. open systems
            7. open to body cavity
            8. heart draws hemolymph back through ostia
            9. arhropods/molluscs
            10. greater fluid volume
            11. closed systems
            12. blood confined to vessles
            13. hierarchy of vessels
            14. arteries/veins
            15. outer layer: connective tissue
            16. middle layer: smooth muscle
            17. inner layer: smooth epithelium
            18. lumen
            19. cephalopods, annelids and all vertebrates
            20. double circulation
            21. amphibians
            22. 3 chambered heart (4 in crocodilians)
            23. pulmocutaneous and systemic circulation
            24. underwater, blood flow to lungs is almost shut off, more blood to skin for gas-exchange
            25. reptiles
            26. partial septum
            27. birds and mammales
            28. cardiac cycle
            29. diastole: relaxation
            30. systole: contraction
            31. lasts .8 seconds
            32. blood
            33. plasma
            34. water
            35. proteins
            36. ions, sugars etc
            37. cells
            38. erythrocytes
            39. leukocytes
            40. platelets
         7. Lymphatic
            1. network, collects excess interstitial fluid and lipids, returns them to blood circulation
            2. lymphoid tissues/organs act as filters, immune system
            3. macrophages/leucocytes destroy/remove bacteria, viruses, damaged cells, debri from lymph/blood
         8. Respiratory
            1. Ventilation
            2. Gas exchange
            3. Flick's Law of Diffusion
            4. rate of diffusion = (D*A*(P1-P2))/L
            5. diffusion coefficient
            6. surface area of epithelium which diffusion takes place
            7. difference of partial pressure of gas
            8. diffusion path length
            9. small animals
            10. high surface area to volume ratio
            11. long/thin
            12. body surface is gas exchange surface
            13. porifera, cnidarians, platyhelminthes
            14. large animals
            15. lower surface area to volume ratio
            16. most cells far from body surface
            17. higher MR
            18. specialized gas exchange surface
            19. circulatory system
            20. Aquatic
            21. Gas Diffusion in water
            22. temperature
            23. lower, more O2
            24. higher, less O2
            25. solubility
            26. water has low O2 solubility compared to air
            27. partial pressure
            28. surface area
            29. turbulence of water surface
            30. Aquatic animals
            31. gills
            32. countercurrent exchange
            33. Circulation
            34. Cellular Respiration
         9. Digestive
         10. Excretory
         11. Reproductive
      2. Organs
         1. Tissues
            1. Epithelial
            2. Shape
            3. cuboidal (dice)
            4. nephrons
            5. columnar (bricks)
            6. line GIT and RT
            7. squamous (tiles)
            8. vessels
            9. Arrangement
            10. simple (single layer)
            11. stratified (tiers)
            12. pseudostratified (single layer, varying lengths)
            13. Connective
            14. Cells
            15. Fibroblasts
            16. Secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
            17. Macrophages
            18. involved in immune system
            19. Fibers
            20. Collagenous
            21. Strength/flexibility
            22. Elastic
            23. stretch and snap
            24. Reticular
            25. join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
            26. Types
            27. Loose
            28. binds epithelial cells
            29. holds organs in place, support
            30. Fibrous
            31. strong/elastic
            32. dense collagenous
            33. tendons/ligaments
            34. Cartilage
            35. Strong, flexible, support
            36. Bone
            37. Mineralised connective
            38. support, movement, protection
            39. Adipose
            40. stores fat in adipose cell matrix
            41. Blood
            42. red, white and platelet cells in plasma
            43. Muscle
            44. Types
            45. Skeletal
            46. striated
            47. attached to bones via tendons
            48. voluntary
            49. fast
            50. low endurance
            51. Cardiac
            52. striated
            53. contractile wall of heart
            54. involuntary
            55. variable speed
            56. medium endurance
            57. Smooth
            58. not striated
            59. walls of GIT, bladder, arteries, organs
            60. involuntary
            61. slow
            62. high-endurance
            63. Structure
            64. fibers
            65. myofibrils
            66. sarcomere
            67. actin
            68. thin
            69. myosin
            70. thick
            71. Speed
            72. slow-twitch (red)
            73. slow and sustained contraction
            74. rich in myoglobin
            75. aerobic respiration
            76. good endurance
            77. fast-twitch (red or white)
            78. rapid contraction for short bursts
            79. poor endurance
            80. fast aerobic (red)
            81. rich in mitochondria and myoglobin
            82. fast anaerobic (white)
            83. few mitochondria and myoglobin
            84. rich in glycogen
            85. Nervous
            86. neurons
            87. transmit nerve impulses
            88. glia
            89. nourish nerve cells
   2. Homeostasis
      1. Mechanism
         1. Stimulus
         2. Sensor
         3. Integrator
         4. Effector
         5. Response
      2. Thermoregulation
         1. Endotherms
            1. Generate heat by metabolism
            2. metabolic rate rises at lower temperatures
            3. regulate body temperature in narrow ranges
            4. active at wide temperatre ranges
            5. Energetically costly
         2. ectotherms
            1. thermal conformers
            2. tolerate considerable variation in temperature
            3. metabolic rate falls at low temperatures
         3. Heat exchange
            1. conduction
            2. direct contact
            3. convection
            4. air or liquid
            5. radiation
            6. no contact
            7. evaporation
            8. removal of heat from wet surface
            9. terrestrial animals
            10. sweating, panting, licking
         4. Insulation
            1. hair, feathers, fat
            2. integumentary system
         5. Circulatory adaptations
            1. vasodilation
            2. enlargement of diameter of blood vessels to increase blood flow
            3. increase transfer of body heat to environment
            4. vasoconstriction
            5. reduction of vessel diameter to reduce blood flow
            6. decrease transfer of body heat to environment
            7. protects core tissues therefore extremities get cold
            8. counter-current heat exchangers
            9. arctic wolf
         6. Behavioral responses
            1. immersion in water
            2. basking in sun
            3. migrating
            4. hibernating
            5. long-term torpor
            6. torpor
            7. reduced activity/metabolic rate
            8. estivation (avoiding heat)
         7. Metabolic heat production
            1. thermogenesis
            2. produce heat via increased muscle activity (shivering, moving)
            3. non-shivering thermogenesis
            4. hormones cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity
            5. brown-fat
            6. specialized for rapid heat production
         8. Acclimation
            1. change thickness of fur/feathers (endotherms)
            2. shift tolerance levels (ectotherms, endotherms)
            3. cellular changes
            4. production of alternate lipids to keep membranes fluid
            5. cryoprotectants (antifreeze)
   3. Bioenergetics
      1. Energy requirement factors
         1. body size, age, sex
            1. MR per gram inversely related to body size
         2. genetics, hormones
         3. activity level/pattern
            1. diurnal
            2. nocturnal
            3. crepuscular
            4. maximum MR is inversely related to duration of activity
         4. external temperature/oxygen
         5. quality/quantity of food
      2. metabolic rate
         1. amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
            1. indirectly measured by O2 consumption, CO2 production
         2. basal metabolic rate
            1. MR of non-growing, non-stressed endotherm at rest
         3. standard metabolic rate
            1. MR of fasting, nons-stressed ectotherm at particular temperature
   4. Locomotion
      1. In water
         1. maintain buoyancy
            1. loss or reduction of bony material/rigid skeleton
            2. gass filled floats, bladders, lipid bladders
         2. minimize friction/drag
            1. streamlined body
            2. undulation
            3. fin oscillation
            4. rowing
            5. hydrofoils
            6. jet propulsion
         3. generate lift/thrust
      2. In air
         1. generate lift/thrust
            1. gliding with updrafts (energy efficient)
            2. flapping/hovering (energy expensive)
         2. minimize friction/drag
      3. On land
         1. bone strength
         2. limb placement
            1. pushup
            2. centre of gravity between legs
            3. less efficient and effective
            4. amphibians, reptiles, arthropods
            5. graviportal
            6. centre of gravity over legs
            7. more efficient/effective
            8. mammals/birds/dinosaurs
         3. speed
            1. flying>running>swimming
         4. energy cost
            1. swimming<flying<running
      4. movement distances
         1. home ranges
            1. large animal, large home range
         2. migrations
   5. Nutrition
      1. Diet and Feeding
         1. nutritional needs
            1. chemical energy for cells
            2. carbs
            3. 55 percent of daily need for humans
            4. proteins
            5. 10-15 percent
            6. fats
            7. 30 percent
            8. organic molecules for biosynthesis
            9. essential nutrients
            10. vitamins
            11. water soluble
            12. B, C
            13. Lipid Soluble
            14. A, D, E, K
            15. minerals
            16. Ca, P, Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, Se, Mo, Ca, Na, K, Cl
         2. Types
            1. herbivores
            2. hard to digest plants
            3. carnivores
            4. easy to digest meat
            5. small animals with high MR usually are
            6. larger animals with low MR may be herbivores or carnivores
            7. detritivores
            8. omnivores
            9. parasites
         3. Mechanisms
            1. suspension
            2. substrate
            3. fluid
            4. bulk
   6. Digestion and Absorption
      1. GIT
         1. two-way
            1. cnidarians/flatworms
         2. one-way
            1. most animals
            2. mouth
            3. jaws/teeth/beaks/hooks
            4. esophagus
            5. small intestine
            6. duodenum
            7. 1st 25
            8. digestive process completed here with gall bladder, pancreas, liver
            9. jejunum
            10. absorption of nutrients and water
            11. lined with villi
            12. blood and lymph vessels
            13. ileum
            14. large intestine
            15. water extraction from faeces
            16. colon bacteria important for vitamin production
         3. no guts
            1. parasitism