1. It a reasoning from a small sample to a general conclusion.
2. Empirical Generalization
   1. Is the sample Know?
      1. Inductive argument=persuasive=sample population explicitly know and clear identified.
   2. Is the sample Sufficient?
      1. Enough large to give an accurate sense of the group as a whole.
   3. Is the sample Representative?
      1. The sample has to be similar to the large group in terms of relevant qualities.
3. Fallacies
   1. Fallacies of False Generalization
      1. Hasty Generalization
         1. This happen when the samples are not large enough and/or not representative to conclude.
      2. Sweeping Generalization
         1. Focuses on difficulties in the process of interpreting.
      3. False Dilemma
         1. Chouse between two extreme alternative without being able to consider additional options.
   2. General conclusion based on a limited number of examples and then apply this conclusion to others examples.
   3. Causal Fallacies
      1. Questionable Cause
         1. Occurs when someone presents a casual relationship for which no real evidence exist
      2. Misidentification of the cause
      3. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
         1. After it, therefore because of it. Two thing Occur close together on time, we assume that one caused the other.
      4. Slippery Slope
         1. asserts that one undesirable action will inevitable lead to a worse action.
   4. Unsound arguments that are often persuasive and logical. Appeal to emotions and prejudices.
   5. Fallacies of Relevance
      1. Appeal to Authority
         1. Appeals to authorities who are not qualified to give an expert opinion.
      2. Appeal to Tradition
         1. Asserting that a practice or way of thinking is "better" or "right", simply because it is older, traditional, or has "always been done that way."
      3. Bandwagon
         1. The uncritical acceptance of others' opinions because "everyone believes it" or because one fears being left behind as a popular trens moves forward.
      4. Appeal to Pity
         1. An appeal designed to make us feel sorry for the person involved and agree with the conclusion out of sympathy.
      5. Appeal to Fear
         1. Appealing to the threat of a negative.
      6. Appeal to Flattery
         1. Appealing to vanity.
      7. Special Pleading
         1. Make a special exception, without sound justification, to the reasonable application of standards, principles, or expectations.
      8. Appeal to Ignorance
         1. A conclusion that claims to be true unless it can be disproved.
      9. Begging The Question
         1. A conclusion that simply assumes to be true without providing relevant evidence.
      10. Straw Man
          1. Attacking or distorting a claim or position by creating an exaggerated or trivialized version of it.
      11. Red Herring
          1. Introducing an irrelevant topic in order to divert attention from the original issue or claim being discussed.
      12. Appeal to Personal Attack
          1. ignoring the issue of the argument and focusing instead on the personal qualities of the person making the argument.
      13. Two Wrongs Make a Right
          1. attempts to justify a morally questionable action by arguing is a response to another wrong action, either real or imagined. Two wrong= a right.
      14. Ad Hominem
          1. Ignoring the issue of the argument and focusing instead on discrediting or criticizing the source.
4. Casual Reasoning
   1. Scientific Method
      1. Identify an event or a relationship between events to be investigated
      2. Gather information about the event
         1. Locating any relevant info to help solve the problem
      3. Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain what is happening.
         1. Hypothesis: a possible explanation of what has happen.
            1. Explanatory Power
            2. Economy
            3. Predictive Power
      4. Test the hypothesis or theory through experimentation
      5. Evaluate the hypothesis or theory based on experimental results
         1. Cause-to-Effect Experiments(with Intervention)
         2. Cause-to-Effect Experiments(without Intervention)
         3. Effect-to-Cause Experiments
   2. Woks on the assumption that the world is constructed in a complex web of casual relationships that can be discovered through systematic investigation.