1. A model is a mental picture that helps us understanding something we cannot see or experience directly. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
    1. Instructional Design Models
      1. Linear Model by Dick & Carey (1990)
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      2. Spiral Model by Romiszowski (1981)
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      3. Rapid Prototyping Model by Tripp & Bichelmeyer (1990)
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      4. Oval Model by Kemp (1985)
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    2. Technology Instructivist Models
      1. Drill and Practice
      2. Computer-based Tutorials
      3. Intelligent Tutorial Systems
      4. Gange's 9-events of Instruction
      5. Reusable Learning Objects
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    3. Technology Constructivist Models
      1. Learning environments
      2. Technology as a tool in a learning activity
      3. Inquiries and problem solving
      4. Cognitive tolls
      5. On-line collaboration and knowledge building
      6. WebQuest and ActiveLesson
      7. Interactive Learning Objects
  2. A theory - provides a general explanation for observations made over time; - explains and predicts behaviours; - can never be established beyond all doubt; - seldom has to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested, - but sometimes may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
    1. The Basics of the Learning Theories
      1. Behaviourism
        1. Based on observable changes in behaviour; it focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
          1. Key players in the development of the behaviorist theory
          2. Pavlov (1849-1936)
          3. Classical conditioning/Stimulus substitution
          4. Experiment of food, a dog and a bell
          5. Stimulus Generalization
          6. Extinction
          7. Spontaneous Recovery
          8. Discrimination
          9. Higher-Order Conditioning
          10. Thorndike (1874-1949)
          11. Apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information".
          12. Connectionism theory - learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.
          13. Laws based on the stimulus-response hypothesis
          14. The "law of effect"
          15. The "law of exercise"
          16. The "law of readiness"
          17. Watson (1878-1958)
          18. Humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.
          19. Experiment of a young child and a white rat
          20. The role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli
          21. Skinner (1904--1990)
          22. Changes in observable behaviour, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind
          23. Walden Two (1948)
          24. A utopian society based on operant conditioning
          25. Science and Human Behaviour (1953)
          26. How the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions
          27. Operant behaviour (voluntary behaviours used in operating on the environment)
          28. Operant Conditioning Mechanisms
          29. Positive Reinforcement/reward
          30. Negative Reinforcement
          31. Extinction/Non- Reinforcement
          32. Punishment
          33. Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
      2. Cognitivism
        1. Base on the thought process behind the behaviour; changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind
          1. Key Concepts of Cognitive Theory
          2. Schema - an internal knowledge structure
          3. Three-Stages Information Processing Model
          4. Sensory Register
          5. Short-Term Memory (STM)
          6. Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM)
          7. Meaningful Effects
          8. Serial Position Effects
          9. Practice Effects
          10. Transfer Effects
          11. Interference Effects
          12. Organization Effects
          13. Levels of Processing Effects
          14. State Dependent Effects
          15. Mnemonic Effects
          16. Schema Effects
          17. Advance Organizers
      3. Constructivism
        1. Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema; it focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.
          1. Realistic VS. Radical Construction (Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997)
          2. Realistic constructivism - cognitions is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment.
          3. Radical constructivism - cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality.
          4. The Assumptions of Constructivism (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)
          5. - knowledge is constructed from experience
          6. - learning is a personal interpretation of the world
          7. - learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience
          8. - conceptual growth comes form the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning
          9. - learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity
    2. The History if Learning Theories in ID
      1. Behaviourism & ID
        1. Behavioural Objectives Movement
          1. Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviours
          2. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning
          3. - knowledge
          4. - comprehension
          5. - application
          6. - analysis
          7. - synthesis
          8. - evaluation
          9. Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning
          10. - verbal information
          11. - intellectual skill
          12. - cognitive strategy
          13. - attitude
          14. - motor skill
          15. Mastery Learning
          16. "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990)
          17. Military and Industrial Approach
          18. Gagne's and Brigg's Model
          19. - Action
          20. - Object
          21. - Situation
          22. - Tools and Constraints
          23. - Capability to be Learned
          24. Accountability Movement
          25. The standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer-society. (Bobbitt, 1900s)
        2. Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement
          1. Contributors
          2. Pressy
          3. Peterson
          4. W.W.II
          5. Crowder
          6. Skinner
        3. Individualized Approaches to Instruction
          1. Keller Plan (1963)
          2. - individually paced.
          3. - mastery learning.
          4. - lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
          5. - use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect of educational process.
          6. Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)
          7. - prepared units.
          8. - behavioural objectives.
          9. - planned instructional sequences.
          10. - used for reading, math and science.
          11. - included pretest and posttest for each unit.
          12. - materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioural objectives.
          13. Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)
          14. - schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioural objectives.
          15. - each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately five objectives.
          16. - mastery learning.
          17. - remedial learning plus retesting.
        4. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
          1. Very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner
        5. Systems Approach to Instruction
          1. Focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction
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      2. Cognitivism & ID
        1. Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction
          1. Programming a computer to "think" like a person: Artificial intelligence
      3. Constructivism & ID
        1. "...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:" (Jonasson)
          1. - Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by representing the natural complexity of the world
          2. - Present authentic tasks - contextualize
          3. - Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences
          4. - Foster reflective practice
          5. Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
          6. - Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition
        2. "...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which..." (Jonasson)
          1. - Is Based on Internal Negotiation
          2. - Is Based on Social Negotiation
          3. - Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New Environments
          4. - Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
          5. - Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods
          6. - Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers
          7. - Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
          8. - Provides ana Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate and Internal Negotiation Necessary for Building Mental Models
    3. Some Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theories
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